peoples from their land and natural resources, they lagged behind in social, economic and cultural development. The situation is now gradually changing, with growing literacy levels and awareness in indigenous communities. The media is also gradually taking responsibility for voicing the concerns of civil society. International law and standards on indigenous peoples’ rights to lands, territories and resources are found in a myriad of international, regional and domestic instruments, decisions and policies. Today, several international instruments recognize the strong ties that exist between indigenous peoples and their ancestral lands. Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169) The core concepts of the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169) are consultation, participation and selfmanagement. These place a responsibility on governments to consult indigenous and tribal peoples and ensure that they fully participate at all levels of the decision-making processes that concern them. ILO Convention No. 169 is a wide-ranging convention adopted by member states in Geneva in 1989 and intended to respect, protect and promote the rights of IPs. Implicit to it are a number of core principles. First is the understanding that IP rights are best protected by their participation at all levels of decision-making (Article 6). Second, is the principle of exercising control over development (Article 7). The ILO Convention (Article 1) sees land as a fundamental criterion for the self-determination of indigenous peoples in their respective countries. Article 1 also indicates that self-identification as indigenous or tribal shall be regarded as a fundamental criterion for determining the groups to which the provisions of this Convention apply. The Convention safeguards the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples (Article 2) to retain their social and cultural identity, customs, traditions and institutions. Articles 14 and 15 give special importance to the cultural and spiritual value attached to their lands or territories and to safeguard traditional rights of ownership and land use. Similarly, Article 13 provides special importance to “cultures and spiritual values” and “collective aspects” of the peoples’ relationship to their lands, and also interprets the term in a wide manner to include “the total environment of the areas.” Articles 13–15, for example, require that the state recognizes and legally guarantees indigenous peoples’ rights of ownership and possession of their traditionally owned lands, territories and resources and requires that such guarantees are made effective in fact through demarcation, titling and the establishment of prompt and effective remedies through which IPs can assert and defend these rights in practice.  International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Article 14 of this Convention makes a landmark provision relating to lands and natural resources: “The rights of ownership and possession of the peoples concerned over the lands which they traditionally occupy shall be recognised. In addition, measures shall be taken in appropriate cases to safeguard the right of the peoples concerned to use lands not exclusively occupied Lok Niti 75