CEDAW/C/2009/WP.1/R In countries of origin before departure6 10. Even before they leave home, women migrant workers face myriad human rights concerns, including complete bans or restrictions on women’s out-migration based on sex or sex combined with age, marital status, pregnancy or maternity status, occupation-specific restrictions or requirements that women must have written permission from male relatives to obtain a passport to travel or migrate. Women are sometimes detained by recruiting agents for training in preparation for departure, during which time they may be subject to financial, physical, sexual or psychological abuse. Women may also suffer the consequences of restricted access to education, training and reliable information on migration, which may lead to increased vulnerability in relation to employers. Exploitative fees may be charged by employment agents, which sometimes cause women, who generally have fewer assets than men, to suffer greater financial hardships and make them more dependent, for example, if they need to borrow from family, friends, or moneylenders at usurious rates. In countries of origin upon return 11. Women migrant workers may face sex- and gender-based discrimination, including compulsory HIV and AIDS testing for women returnees, moral “rehabilitation” for young women returnees and increased personal and social costs compared to men, without adequate gender-responsive services. For example, men may return to a stable family situation, whereas women may find disintegration of the family upon their return, with their absence from home regarded as the cause of such disintegration. There may also be a lack of protection against reprisals from exploitative recruiting agents. In countries of transit 12. Women migrant workers may face a variety of human rights concerns when transiting through foreign countries. When travelling with an agent or escort, women migrants may be abandoned if the agent encounters problems in transit or upon arrival in the country of destination. Women are also vulnerable to sexual and physical abuse by agents and escorts when travelling in countries of transit. In countries of destination 13. Once they reach their destinations, women migrant workers may encounter multiple forms of de jure and de facto discrimination. There are countries whose Governments sometimes impose restrictions or bans on women’s employment in particular sectors. Whatever the situation, women migrant workers face additional hazards compared to men because of gender-insensitive environments that do not allow mobility for women, and that give them little access to relevant information about their rights and entitlements. Gendered notions of appropriate work for women result in job opportunities that reflect familial and service functions ascribed __________________ 6 08-63558 Paragraphs 10 and 11 describe some of the sex- and gender-related human rights concerns that women experience in their countries of origin, both before departure and upon return. Concerns related to transit and life abroad are discussed in paragraphs 12 to 22. These sections are illustrative and are not meant to be exhaustive. It should be noted that certain human rights concerns described here may render a woman’s decision to migrate involuntarily under relevant international law; in such cases, reference should be made to those norms. 5