Conceived as "a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations", the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has become just that: a yardstick by which to measure the degree of respect for, and compliance with, international human rights standards. Since 1948 it has been and rightly continues to be the most important and far-reaching of all United Nations declarations, and a fundamental source of inspiration for national and international efforts to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. It has set the direction for all subsequent work in the field of human rights and has provided the basic philosophy for many legally binding international instruments designed to protect the rights and freedoms which it proclaims. In the Proclamation of Teheran, adopted by the International Conference on Human Rights held in Iran in 1968, the Conference agreed that "the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states a common understanding of the peoples of the world concerning the inalienable and inviolable rights of all members of the human family and constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community". The Conference affirmed its faith in the principles set forth in the Declaration, and urged all peoples and Governments "to dedicate themselves to [those] principles . . . and to redouble their efforts to provide for all human beings a life consonant with freedom and dignity and conducive to physical, mental, social and spiritual welfare". In recent years, there has been a growing tendency for United Nations organs, in preparing international instruments in the filed of human rights, to refer not only to the Universal Declaration, but also to other parts of the International Bill of Human Rights. International Covenants on Human Rights The preambles and articles 1, 3 and 5 of the two International Covenants are almost identical. The preambles recall the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations to promote human rights; remind the individual of his responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of those rights; and recognize that, in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and want can be achieved only if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well as his economic, social and cultural rights. Article 1of each Covenant states that the right to self-determination is universal and calls upon States to promote the realization of that right and to respect it. The article provides that "All peoples have the right of self-determination" and adds that "By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development". Article 3, in both cases, reaffirms the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all human rights, and enjoins States to make that principle a reality. Article 5, in both cases, provides safeguards against the destruction or undue limitation of any human right or fundamental freedom, and against misinterpretation of any provision of the Covenants as a means of justifying infringement of a right or freedom or its restriction to a greater extent than provided for in the Covenants. It also prevents States from limiting rights already enjoyed within their territories on the ground that such rights are not recognized, or recognized to a lesser extent, in the Covenants. Articles 6 to 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognize the rights to work (art. 6); to the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work (art. 7); to form and join trade unions (art. 8); to social security, including social insurance (art. 9); to the widest possible protection and assistance for the family, especially mothers, children and young persons (art. 10); to an adequate standard of living (art. I 1); to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (art. 12); to education (arts. 13 and 14); and to take part in cultural life (art. 15). In its articles 6 to 27, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the right to life (art. 6) and lays down that no one is to be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (art. 7); that no one is to be held in slavery; that slavery and the slave-trade are to be prohibited; and that no one is to be held in servitude or required to perform forced or compulsory labour (art. 8); that no one is to be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention (art. 9); that all persons deprived of