89 of this emitted carbon dioxide was absorbed by the ocean, causing ocean acidification.427 The IPCC AR5 also singled out the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide as the largest contributor to total positive radiative forcing (RF).428 RF quantifies the change in energy fluxes caused by changes in natural and anthropogenic substances and processes that alter the earth’s energy budget for 2011 relative to 1750. Positive RF leads to surface warming while negative RF, leads to cooling.429 Significantly, the IPCC AR5 reported that from 1750 to 2011, carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production have released 375 [345 to 405] gigatons of carbon (GtC) into the atmosphere.430 As 1 GtC equals 3.67 GtCO2, this translates to approximately 1.376.25 [1,266.15 to 1,486.35] GtCO2 of global emissions. Published and peer-reviewed studies431 and updates432 thereon (collectively, The Carbon Majors Study) presented to the Commission by its author433 found that roughly 368 GtCO2e or 21.4 percent of these global emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production were from products sold by the Carbon Majors. It must, however, be stated that the study, updated as of 2016, did not use the global emissions data from the IPCC, but rather used the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center’s (CDIAC) data listing 1,545 GtCO2 emissions from 1751 to 2016 in a study covering the period from 1854 to 2016. The climate model used in their analysis was based on the impulse response function approach presented in IPCC AR5, and covered the periods from 1880 to 2010 and 1980 to 2010. The study reported the following: 427 IPCC AR5 WG1, at 11. 428 Id. at 13. 429 Id. 430 Id. at 12. 431 See Exhibit VVVV to VVVV-14, Tracing Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions to Fossil Fuel and Cement Producers, 1854-2010; Exhibit UUUU to UUUU-103, Carbon Majors; Accounting for Carbon and Methane Emissions 1854-2010 Methods and Results Report; Exhibit WWWW to WWWW-9, Supplementary Materials. 432 See Exhibit D, Updated Details of Carbon Exhibit TTTT to TTTT-1, Climate Accountability Institute, Update of Carbon Majors Project. 433 T.S.N. of the Third Inquiry Hearing dated 29-30 August 2018, pp.53-86; See Exhibit QQQQ to QQQQ-11, Profile and Statement of Richard Heede dated 7 August 2018; Exhibit RRRR to RRRR5, Curriculum Vitae of Richard Heede; Exhibit SSSS to SSSS-11, Printed PowerPoint Presentation of Richard Heede, Climate Accountability Institutes’ work to quantify the contributions of carbon producers to climate change and climate change damages. Major Press Publications; Release on