CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN RIGHTS vulnerable groups, who may suffer greater hardship due to the increased price of energy, fuel, and goods.50 Some commentators have also suggested that the commoditization of carbon emissions rights will contribute to, rather than alleviate, existing economic disparities between and within countries.51 These concerns may be alleviated through proper regulatory design, such as by including relief from increased costs or encouraging distributional equity in project siting decisions. (b) Adaptation Both the failure to adapt and the implementation of adaptation measures can interfere with human rights, particularly for the most vulnerable. One concern is that some adaptation programs, may benefit one group to the detriment of another—as might be the case for coastal fortifications that protect one community while exposing another to greater risk of erosion and/or flooding. There is also the risk that adaptation measures will be undertaken without the necessary public consultation and may result in outcomes that adversely affect the very persons they aim to protect. There is a risk of human rights violations in the context of relocation and resettlement programs, and a corresponding need to ensure that such programs are undertaken with adequate input and consent from those who are relocated. It should be noted that both the Adaptation Fund and the Green Climate Fund have put in place environmental and social safeguards. (c) Geoengineering Geoengineering refers to the deliberate and large-scale manipulation of natural systems through measures aimed at preventing or mitigating the effects of climate change, such as solar radiation management and ocean iron fertilization. Although there have not yet been any significant field tests of geoengineering technology, far less any large-scale geoengineering projects, it is important to note that such projects could seriously interfere with the enjoyment of human rights for millions and perhaps billions of people. For example, one recent study of five potential geoengineering methods deployed in high GHG emissions scenarios concluded that these methods could severely disrupt ocean and terrestrial ecosystems.52 These disruptive effects could undermine the provision of ecosystem goods and services, thus interfering with access to food, clean water, and other key resources. Another study found that proposals for solar radiation management would cause widespread regional-scale changes in precipitation.53 Such shifts could lead to increases in storms and flooding in some areas and drought in others, with adverse impacts on natural ecosystems and human settlements. In addition, there is at this time no mechanism in place to ensure that governments or private parties carrying out geoengineering projects coordinate with the international community, or even disclose information to allow for public participation. 50 51 52 53 10 See, e.g., Jodoin & Lofts (2013), supra note 44, at 31-32; Karen Bubna-Litic, Climate Change Impacts on the Poor – A Case Study of Australia’s Indigenous Population and the Impact of Australia’s Response on this Population, in Poverty Alleviation and Environmental Law (Yves Le Bouthillier et al. eds., Edward Elgar 2012). See, e.g., Torres & Skutsch (2014), supra note 49; Gupta et al. (2013), supra note 49; Mark Wilson, The Green Economy: The Dangerous Path of Nature Commoditization, 10 Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development 85 (2013). David Keller et al., Potential Climate Engineering Effectiveness and Side Effects During a High Carbon Dioxide-Emission Scenario, 5 Nature Communications 3304 (2014). J.A. Crook et al., A Comparison of Temperature and Precipitation Responses to Different Earth Radiation Management Geoengineering Schemes, 120 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres DOI 10.1002/2015JD023269 (2015). T H E H U M A N R I G H T S I M P L I C AT I O N S O F C L I M AT E C H A N G E