34 C E N T E R F O R I N T E R N AT I O N A L E N V I R O N M E N TA L L AW 151 See MULVEY & SHULMAN, supra note 132, at 19. 152 See Greening Earth Society, DESMOG BLOG, https://www.desmogblog.com/greening-earthsociety (last visited Nov. 3, 2017); for a useful overview of various Western Fuels climate denial campaigns active in the 1990s and into the 2000s, see Center for Environmental Advocacy and Research, Western Fuels Association’s Astroturf Empire Coal industry Campaign Multiplies Efforts to Re-Spin Global Warming, (Nov. 10, 1998), available at https:// web.archive.org/web/20020629002337/http:// clearproject.org/reports_westernfuels.html. 153 See MULVEY & SHULMAN, supra note 132, at 25. 154 See Suzanne Goldenberg & Helena Bengtsson, Biggest US Coal Company Funded Dozens of Groups Questioning Climate Change, THE GUARDIAN (Jun. 13, 2016, 6:00 AM), https:// www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/ jun/13/peabody-energy-coal-mining-climatechange-denial-funding; Nick Surgey, Bankruptcy Filing Shows Arch Coal Funding for Climate Denial Legal Group, PRWATCH (Feb. 24, 2016, 8:33 AM), http://www.prwatch.org/ news/2016/02/13049/bankruptcy-documentsindicate-arch-coal-funding-climate-deniallegal-group; Coal Companies’ Secret Funding of Climate Science Denial Exposed, UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS (Apr. 2016), http:// www.ucsusa.org/publications/gotscience/2016/got-science-april-2016#. WJpclX8plVg. 155 MULVEY & SHULMAN, supra note 132, at 1618. 156 ExxonMobil, Energy and Climate (2014), available at http://cdn.exxonmobil.com/~/ media/global/files/energy-and-environment/ report---energy-and-climate.pdf. 157 Id. (emphasis added). 158 See Carrington & Mommers, supra note 125. 159 See Dana Nuccitelli, New Studies Show Rex Tillerson is Wrong About Climate Risks, THE GUARDIAN (Jan. 16, 2017), https://www. theguardian.com/environment/climateconsensus-97-per-cent/2017/jan/16/newstudies-show-rex-tillerson-is-wrong-aboutclimate-risks. 160 See Geoffrey Supran & Naomi Oreskes, Assessing ExxonMobil’s Climate Change Communications (1977-2014), ENVTL. RES. LETTERS, Aug. 23, 2017, available at http:// iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ aa815f 161 Id. 162 Id. 163 Id. See also Geoffrey Supran & Naomi Oreskes, What Exxon Mobil Didn’t Say About Climate Change, N.Y. TIMES (Aug. 22, 2017), available at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/ opinion/exxon-climate-change-.html?_r=0. 164 See Justin Gillis & Clifford Krauss, Exxon Mobil Investigated for Possible Climate Change Lies by New York Attorney General, N.Y. TIMES (Nov. 5, 2015), available at https://www. nytimes.com/2015/11/06/science/exxonmobil-under-investigation-in-new-york-overclimate-statements.html. 165 See Diane Cardwell & John Schwartz, Exxon Emissions Costs Accounting ‘May Be a Sham,’ 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 New York State Says, N.Y. TIMES (June 2, 2017), available at https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/02/business/energyenvironment/exxon-mobil-climate-changelawsuit.html. See David Hasemyer, Exxon May Have Erased 7 Years of Tillerson’s ‘Wayne Tracker’ Emails, Witness Says, INSIDECLIMATE NEWS (June 8, 2017), https://insideclimatenews.org/ news/08062017/exxon-climate-fraud-rextillerson-erased-wayne-tracker-emails-witness. See id. See id. See Examination of Michelle Hirshman at 141-42, Matter of the Investigation of Exxon Mobil Corporation (N.Y. Sup. Ct. June 2, 2017) (No. 451962/2016) (noting that the Wayne Tracker email address was not subject to a preservation hold), available at http://www. documentcloud.org/documents/3860668Document-185-Transcript-of-Deposition-ofExxon.html. See also Carroll Muffett, Why the Exxon Investigation is More Urgent and More Justified than Ever, ALTERNET (July 19, 2017, 11:30 PM), https://www.alternet.org/ environment/why-exxon-investigation-moreurgent-and-more-justified-ever. See Examination of Connie Feinstein at 71, Matter of the Investigation of Exxon Mobil Corporation (N.Y. Sup. Ct. June 2, 2017) (No. 451962/2016), available at https://www. documentcloud.org/documents/3860303Document-194-Transcript-of-Exxon-TechieConnie.html. See Memorandum of Law in Opposition to Exxon’s Motion to Quash and in Support of the Office of the Attorney General’s CrossMotion to Compel at 12, n. 12, New York v. PriceWaterhouseCoopers (N.Y. Sup. Ct. June 2, 2017) (451962/2016). See Examination of Michelle Hirshman, supra note 169, at 37. Id. at 135-36. Production of Pure Carbon Dioxide, U.S. Patent No. 2,665,971 (filed May 12, 1949). Method for Recovering a Purified Component from a Gas, U.S. Patent No. 3,228,874 (filed Aug 22, 1961). Process for the Removal of Acidic Gases from a Gas Mixture, U.S. Patent No. 3,760,564 (filed Mar. 20, 1972). Petroleum Recovery with Inert Gases, U.S. Patent No. 3,193,006 (filed Nov. 3, 1961). Recovery of Shale Oil, U.S. Patent No. 3,516,495 (filed Nov. 29, 1967). See DeMelle & Grandia, supra note 117. See Carbon Capture and Storage a Costly, Risky Distraction, GREENPEACE (July 1, 2016), http:// www.greenpeace.org/international/en/ campaigns/climate-change/Solutions/Rejectfalse-solutions/Reject-carbon-capture--storage/ (noting that carbon capture and storage technology is expensive, has led to unnatural earthquakes, and has other technical implementation problems which have led to Norway, the United States, the European Union, and the United Kingdom, among others, to cancel high-profile carbon capture and storage projects). See id. (noting examples in Salah, Algeria, the Norwegian North Sea, and Mississippi, United States, where carbon capture and storage 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 attempts have led to cracks in rock formations, indicating likely future leakage, or actual leakage events). Direct Production of Electrical Energy from Liquid Fuels, U.S. Patent No. 3,113,049 (filed Jan. 3, 1961); Fuel Cell and Fuel Cell Electrodes, U.S. Patent No. 3,116,169 (filed Mar. 14, 1960); Fuel Cell Catalysts, U.S. Patent No. 3,239,382 (filed Sept. 27, 1960); Fuel Cell With Pr-Au Anode and MolybdateContaining Electrolyte, U.S. Patent No. 3,443,998 (filed Jul. 5, 1963); Low-Polluting Engine and Drive System, U.S. Patent No. 3,513,929 (filed Aug. 25, 1967). See generally S.G. Meibuhr, Review of United States Fuel-Cell Patents Issued During 1963 and 1964, 11(9) ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA 1325 (1966), available at http://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/0013468666870317. See Electric Vehicles and Other Alternatives to the Internal Combustion Engine: Hearing on S. 451 and S. 453 Before the S. Comm. on Commerce and the S. Subcomm. on Air and Water Pollution of the S. Comm. on Pub. Works, 90th Cong. 316-19 (1967) (statement of Robert Dunlop, Chairman, Board of Directors, American Petroleum Institute). See, e.g., High Efficiency Selenium Heterojunction Solar Cells, U.S. Patent No. 4,064,522 (filed Feb. 4, 1976); Solar Cell Module, U.S. Patent No. 4,235,643 (filed June 30, 1978); Solar Cell Assembly and fabrication of Solar Cell Panels Utilizing Same, U.S. Patent No. 4,287,382 (filed May 9, 1980); Indium Oxide/N-Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells, U.S. Patent No. 4,366,335 (filed Apr. 30, 1981); Thin Film Solar Cell Substrate, U.S. Patent No. 4,510,344 (filed Dec. 19, 1983). See Tracy Emblem, How Big Oil had Controlled the Solar Industry, SAN DIEGO UNION-TRIBUNE (Apr. 17, 2011), http://www. sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-how-big-oilhad-controlled-the-solar-industry-2011apr17story.html. For an extensive review of the oil industry’s role in the solar industry during this period, including a discussion of how the industry captured vital subsidies, see Geoffrey Jones & Loubna Bouamane, “Power from Sunshine”: A Business History of Solar Energy 21-38 (Harvard Bus. Sch., Working Paper No. 12-105, 2012), available at http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/ Publication%20Files/12-105.pdf. See generally id.; Emblem, supra note 186. See, e.g., GERALD MARKOWITZ AND DAVID ROSNER, DECEIT AND DENIAL: THE DEADLY POLITICS OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION (Univ. of California Press, 2002); James Lincoln Kitman, The Secret History of Lead, The Nation (March 2, 2000) https://www.thenation.com/article/ secret-history-lead/; see also discussion infra. See, e.g., CHIP JACOBS, WILLIAM J. KELLY, SMOGTOWN: THE LUNG-BURNING HISTORY OF POLLUTION IN LOS ANGELES (2008); Devra Davis, When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution (2003) (passim); JAMES E. KRIER, POLLUTION AND POLICY: A CASE ESSAY ON CALIFORNIA AND FEDERAL EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR VEHICLE AIR POLLUTION, 19401975 (1977); and discussion supra notes 49-69 and accompanying text. Jennifer Beth Sass, Barry Castleman, and David