In defense of land rights: A monitoring report on land conflicts in six Asian countries 88 In 2017, out of a total 659 agrarian conflict cases, there were 289 which were between private companies and local peoples. 140 cases were between government and locals, while 112 cases were conflicts between communities. Also, there were 55 cases of local people versus State-owned enterprises, and 28 cases between State apparatus and local people. During the period January to August 2018, most conflicts were between local inhabitants and private enterprises (164 cases). Locals versus government conflicts accounted for 35 cases, followed by peoples versus peoples (28), people versus State-owned enterprises (22) and finally people versus police/ military (14). Perpetrators of violence and criminalization Violence and criminalization is perpetrated directly against local people on site. In Indonesia, the KPA identifies the perpetrators of such violent actions: military, police and private security personnel. In 2017, the police was the perpetrator of the most violence and criminalization with 21 cases, followed by private company security (15 cases), and the military (12 cases). Meanwhile, from January up to August 2018, private company security personnel were involved in 16 cases, and the police were the perpetrators in 10 cases. CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL AGRARIAN CONFLICT ANGOC The causes of structural agrarian conflict are complex, varied and in many cases, intertwined. There is a “jungle of laws and regulations” on land and natural resource administration, often overlapping and sometimes contradictory. This is compounded by lack of coordination and capacity among the various government agencies, as well as differing perspectives on the agrarian problem. Predictably, the results are gaps between policy and implementation, particularly the lack of law enforcement and affirmative action against company and State violence, malpractice and corruption. Agrarian conflict resolution mechanisms and efforts have also been largely ineffective. At the core of the problem is the liberalization development paradigm which views land as a commodity. Aligned with this is the global trend towards agricultural business and monoculture cropping. These trends lead to elimination of people’s rights/access to land and livelihoods, as well as environmental destruction. Also at the core of the problem is discrimination against indigenous peoples, peasants and other marginalized groups.