discourse, express ourselves and our opinions, and more. However, it can also be used for human rights abuses against people of all ages, gender, identities and political affiliations from all over the country.xiii This statement came out during the height of the presidential campaign in 2016, when human rights activists and ordinary “netizens” were being harassed and bullied online for expressing their political opinions and criticisms about the presidential and vice- presidential candidates. While anyone can be prone to online violence, women are particularly targeted with hate speech, death and rape threats. The case of Renee Karunungan is one example. Karunungan, a writer and human rights activist, filed a criminal case at the Department of Justice (DOJ) and an election offense case at the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) after she received a torrent of hateful and threatening comments and messages for her facebook posts explaining why she had chosen not to vote for a certain candidate.xiv Commission on Human Rights of the Philippines (CHRP) noted that “no one has the right to hurt or threaten others in the real world…same with the virtual world, you cannot violate the rights of others."xv,xvi Laws and policies related to ICT and internet governance 11. Over the years, several national laws designed to protect the rights of women and children were passed, but a review of these policies showed that the term “information and communications technology” (ICT) has not been categorically defined in Philippine statutes.xvii Nonetheless, in the last decade the Philippines has attempted to bridge gaps in existing legislation through amendments or the creation of new laws. 12. In 2009, the Philippines enacted Republic Act 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women which affords better protection of women’s rights. The law mentioned numerous times the role of technology as means to fulfill their rights to a life with dignity. It specifically recognizes technology in women’s right to livelihood and states that women shall be provided with “updated, useful information and gender-sensitive technologies for production, processing, and marketing of food productsxviii.” It likewise demands the State ensure “right to livelihood, credit, capital and technology.”xix,xx Although Government efforts to maximize the use of ICT for development and delivery of services are laudable, there is still a considerable lack of commitment to advance gender equality and empowerment through the internet and ICT. 13. In 2016, legislators introduced the Comprehensive Anti-Discrimination Bill,xxi,xxii which seeks to guarantee equal protection of rights of persons with diverse sexual orientation, gender identity and expressions (SOGIE) and penalize perpetration of discriminatory practices against them. Under the bill, “it shall be unlawful to deny a person of his freedom of opinion and expression based solely or partly on Protected Attributes. This includes “freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any medium.”xxiii 14. Following a mapping of online gender-based violence in the Philippines conducted by the FMA, it was found that there have been more than one hundred and sixty (160) cases of online genderbased violence cases in the country since 2012. These include incidents of online harassment, cyber bullying, digital stalking, identity theft, verbal sexual assault, threats and abusive comments, and uploading of photos and videos on intimate nature without consent.xxiv 15. In response to the increasing incidence of sexual harassment, misogynist attack and unwanted remarks against women both online and offline, in 2016, Senator Risa Hontiveros filed three bills dubbed as the ‘Tres Marias bills’ which are The Anti-Rape Act, Anti-Sexual Harassment Bill, and