Lovendal and Knowles (2006) linked food security and vulnerability in their research. They provide a definition of vulnerability in terms of food security. They define vulnerability “relative to the negative outcome of food security and define as vulnerability people’s propensity to fall, or stay, below the food security threshold within a certain time frame”. They offered a framework for understanding food security by including risks and the ability at different levels to manage these to reduce the probability of people being food insecure in the future. The suggested framework looks at present characteristics of food security status, risks such as shocks, trends and seasonality, and risk management to predict future food security status which is measured by food availability, access to food, food consumption, food utilization and nutritional status. Figure 2. Framework for vulnerability to food security Events to-t1 Present characteristics Risks (Shocks, trends, seasonality) Expected future food security status t1 Risk management Malnutrition prevalence (CBMS) Food availability Food consumption Type Level Frequency Timing Severity Actors Level Market/nonmarket Ex ante/ex post Access to food Food consumption ( FIES) Nutritional status Present food security status to Food utilization Source: Lovendal and Knowles, 2006 At the macro-level, according to the ADB report on Food Security and Climate Change in the Pacific (2008), the factor influencing food security include food importation, global food and fuel prices, disasters and CBMS-FAO | 9